Identity at the Molecular Level: Advances in Forensic Biology and Human Identification
Keywords:
Molecular Forensic Biology, Human Identification, Next-Generation Sequencing, Forensic GeneticsAbstract
Analyses based on genetic material have been transformed by molecular forensic biology, which allows for the accurate and reliable analysis of DNA. The use of new technologies such as DNA Profiling, short tandem repeat (STR), mitochondrial DNA analysis, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping and rapid DNA systems has enhanced the examination of biological evidence in routine and complex forensic cases. New molecular techniques, including next-generation sequencing, forensic epigenetics, transcriptomics, and microbiome analysis, have also broadened the forensic science toolbox to help with age estimation and tissue identification, or to improve the analysis of degraded or mixed samples. These technologies can be used in crime scene investigation, disaster victim identification, kinship testing, and wildlife forensics. While all of this has been achieved, there are still problems of ethical governance, genetic privacy, laboratory standardization and the interpretation of complex genetic evidence, especially in developing forensic systems like India. Investment in advanced technologies, skilled personnel, accredited laboratories and robust regulatory frameworks will help to further develop molecular forensic biology and facilitate the accurate, ethical and efficient identification of human remains in the criminal justice system.
References
[1] N. Sharma, A. Dey, A. Balayan, T. Millo, and S. K. Gupta, “Molecular Techniques used for Determination of Genetic Identity in Forensic Samples,” J. Forensic Chem. Toxicol., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 51–57, 2018, doi: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21088/jfct.2454.9363.4118.5.
[2] J. M. Butler, “Recent advances in forensic biology and forensic DNA typing: INTERPOL review 2019–2022,” Forensic Sci. Int. Synerg., vol. 6, p. 100311, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100311.
[3] A. Shah, I. U. Malik, R. M. Fazal, S. Umar, and S. H. Ahmad, “Evolution of Laboratory Techniques in Forensic Biology: From Conventional Methods to Modern Molecular Approaches,” Phys. Educ. Heal. Soc. Sci., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 765–776, 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.63163/jpehss.v4i1.1216.
[4] N. Girdhar, D. Sharma, R. Kumar, M. Sahu, and C. Lin, “Emerging trends in biomedical trait-based human identification: A bibliometric analysis,” SLAS Technol., vol. 29, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.slast.2024.100136.
[5] M. Kowalczyk, E. Zawadzka, D. Szewczuk, M. Gryzińska, and A. Jakubczak, “Molecular markers used in forensic genetics,” Med. Sci. Law, vol. 58, pp. 201–209, 2018, [Online]. Available: https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52892668
[6] M. Kayser, W. Branicki, W. Parson, and C. Phillips, “Recent advances in Forensic DNA Phenotyping of appearance, ancestry and age,” Forensic Sci. Int. Genet., vol. 65, p. 102870, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2023.102870.
[7] S. Panneerchelvam and norazmi M. Nor, “DNA Profiling in Human Identification: From Past to Present,” Malays J Med Sci., vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 5–21, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.21315/mjms2023.30.6.2.
[8] Amorim, T. Fernandes, and N. Taveira, “Mitochondrial DNA in human identification: a review,” PeerJ, 2019, doi: 10.7717/peerj.7314.
[9] N. M. M. Novroski and J. C. Cihlar, “Evolution of single-nucleotide polymorphism use in forensic genetics,” WIREs Forensic Sci., vol. 4, no. 6, p. e1459, Nov. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/wfs2.1459.
[10] S. Dishon, A. Gold, L. Sapir, E. Palit, and M. Amiel, “Enhancement of DNA recovery in rapid DNA technology: A novel pre-extraction protocol,” Forensic Sci. Int., vol. 380, p. 112826, 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2026.112826.
[11] N. Sharma, “A Landscape of Molecular Methods in Forensic Investigations,” Rom. J. Leg. Med., vol. 33, pp. 261–270, Sep. 2025, doi: 10.4323/rjlm.2025.261.
[12] Y. Yuguda, “Application of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology in forensic science: A review,” GSC Biol. Pharm. Sci., vol. 23, pp. 155–159, May 2023, doi: 10.30574/gscbps.2023.23.2.0199.
[13] Lei et al., “Forensic Transcriptomics: Research Progress of the Past Two Decades.,” Genomics. Proteomics Bioinformatics, Feb. 2026, doi: 10.1093/gpbjnl/qzag007.
[14] W. K. Mousa, F. Chehadeh, and S. Husband, “Recent Advances in Understanding the Structure and Function of the Human Microbiome,” Front. Microbiol., vol. 13, 2022, doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.825338.
[15] Rajput, “Biological Evidence for Crime Investigation,” J. Digit. Secur. Forensics, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 34–52, 2024, doi: 10.29121/DigiSecForensics.v1.i1.202 4.23.
[16] North, L. M. Howes, and J. Dwyer, “The scene phase of disaster victim identification (DVI): Lessons learned from deployments, training, and police and defence force collaborative exercises,” Sci. Justice, vol. 66, p. 101430, 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2026.101430.
[17] M. De Bruyn, C. K. Harper, and M. Theresa, “A septennium review of wildlife forensic DNA analysis in South Africa,” Forensic Sci. Int. Genet., vol. 80, 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2025.103339.
[18] L. J. Heathfield, S. Maistry, L. J. Martin, R. Ramesar, and J. De Vries, “Ethical considerations in forensic genetics research on tissue samples collected post- mortem in Cape Town, South Africa,” BMC Med. Ethics, vol. 18, no. 66, pp. 1–8, 2017, doi: 10.1186/s12910-017-0225-6.
[19] P. Sahoo, “Ethical issues in forensic DNA analysis,” 2026, pp. 407–423. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-30128-5.00027-8.
[20] J. Butler, “Recent advances in forensic biology and forensic DNA typing: INTERPOL review 2019–2022,” Forensic Sci. Int. Synerg., vol. 6, p. 100311, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100311.
[21] K. Rana, “The Future of Forensic Biology,” J. Biomed., vol. 3, 2018, doi: 10.7150/jbm.22760.
[22] A. Gutiérrez-hurtado, M. E. García-acéves, Y. Puga-carrillo, M. Guardado-estrada, D. S. Becerra-loaiza, and V. D. Carrillo-rodríguez, “Past, Present and Future Perspectives of Forensic Genetics,” Biomolecules, vol. 15, no. 713, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ biom15050713.
